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1. community [kə’mjuːnətɪ] n |
– община; местное сообщество, население |
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2. enforce [ɪn’fɔːs ], [en-] v |
– проводить в жизнь; придавать законную силу (правовому акту) б) осуществлять, приводить в исполнение |
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3. imposition [ˌɪmpə’zɪʃ(ə)n] n |
– наложение; установление, назначение (в законе, приговоре) |
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4. penalty [‘pen(ə)ltɪ] n |
– наказание; взыскание; штраф |
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5. legislator [‘leʤɪsleɪtə] n |
– законодатель; член законодательного органа |
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6. statute [‘stætjuːt] n |
– закон, законодательный акт парламента; статут |
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7. executive [ɪg’zekjutɪv] adj |
– исполнительный, принадлежащий к структурам исполнительной власти |
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8. binding [‘baɪndɪŋ] adj |
– обязывающий, обязательный, имеющий обязательную силу, связующий |
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9. private individual |
– частное лицо |
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10. arbitration agreement |
– арбитражное соглашение (соглашение о порядке урегулирования споров с помощью арбитров, избираемых по взаимному согласию сторон; такое соглашение исключает обращение в суд) |
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11. elect [ɪ’lekt] v |
– избирать (голосованием) |
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12. accept [ək’sept] v |
– принимать, брать; соглашаться |
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13. arbitration [ˌɑːbɪ’treɪʃ(ə)n] n |
– третейский суд, арбитраж |
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14. court [kɔːt] n |
– суд; судья; судьи |
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15. tacit [‘tæsɪt] adj |
– молчаливый (о соглашении, одобрении и т.д.), подразумеваемый, выводимый из обстоятельств, конклюдентный |
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16. encoded adj |
– закодированный |
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17. canon law [͵kænənʹlɔ:] |
– каноническое, церковное право |
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18. binding law |
– императивная норма |
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19. secular [‘sekjulə] adj |
– светский |
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20. Jewish [‘ʤuːɪʃ] adj |
– еврейский; иудейский |
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21. Islamic [ɪz’læmɪk] adj |
– исламский, мусульманский |
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22. sharia(h) [ʃə’riːə] shari’a(h) n |
– шариат (совокупность регулирующих поведение мусульманина норм) |
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23. adjudication [ə’ʤuːdɪkeɪʃ(ə)n] n |
– признание, установление |
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24. deal [diːl] with v |
– рассматривать (тему), касаться (темы) |
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25. guilty [‘gɪltɪ] adj |
– виновный |
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26. imprison [ɪm’prɪz(ə)n] v |
– заключать в тюрьму; лишать свободы |
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27. fine [faɪn] v |
– налагать денежное взыскание, штраф, штрафовать |
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28. lawsuit [‘lɔːs(j)uːt] n |
– судебный процесс; иск; тяжба |
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29. legal remedy |
– средство правовой, судебной защиты |
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30. derivative market |
– рынок производных ценных бумаг, рынок производных (финансовых) инструментов, рынок деривативов, производный рынок (на котором торгуются производные финансовые инструменты (напр., опционный или фьючерсный рынок, цены на котором зависят от цен базовых |
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31. real property |
– недвижимое имущество, реальная собственность |
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32. assets n pl |
– актив(ы); средства; имущество |
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33. framework [‘freɪmwɜːk] n |
– конструкция, структура, система, рамки, пределы |
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34. sovereign state |
– суверенное государство; независимое государство |
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35. implement [‘ɪmplɪmənt] v |
– выполнять, осуществлять |
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36. enforce [ɪn’fɔːs], [en-] v |
– принуждать, вынуждать |
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37. bureaucracy [bjuə’rɔkrəsɪ] n |
– бюрократия |
Law is a system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties1.
Laws can be made by a collective legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes, by the executive through decrees and regulations, or by judges through binding precedent, normally in common law jurisdictions.
Private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people.
A general distinction can be made between:
(a) civil law jurisdictions (including Catholic canon law and socialist law), in which the legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates their laws,
(b) common law systems, where judge-made precedent is accepted as binding law.
Historically, religious laws played a significant role even in settling of secular matters, which is still the case in some religious communities, particularly Jewish, and some countries, particularly Islamic. Islamic Sharia law is the world’s most widely used religious law.
The adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law.
Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order and in which the guilty party may be imprisoned or fined.
Civil law (not to be confused with civil law jurisdictions above) deals with the resolution of lawsuits (disputes) between individuals or organizations. These resolutions seek to provide a legal remedy (often monetary damages) to the winning litigant.
Under civil law, the following specialties, among others, exist:
Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivatives markets.
Property law regulates the transfer and title of personal property and real property.
Trust law applies to assets held for investment and financial security.
Tort law allows claims for compensation if a person’s property is harmed.
Constitutional law provides a framework for the creation of law, the protection of human rights and the election of political representatives.
Administrative law governs what executive branch agencies may and may not do, procedures that they must follow to do it, and judicial review when a member of the public is harmed by an agency action.
International law governs affairs between sovereign states in activities ranging from trade to military action.
To implement and enforce the law and provide services to the public by public servants, a government’s bureaucracy, military, and police are vital.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/jurisprudence.aspx
Legal subjects
All legal systems deal with the same basic issues, but jurisdictions categorise and identify its legal subjects in different ways. A common distinction is that between “public law” (a term related closely to the state, and including constitutional, administrative and criminal law), and “private law” (which covers contract, tort and property). In civil law systems, contract and tort fall under a general law of obligations, while trusts law is dealt with under statutory regimes or international conventions. International, constitutional and administrative law, criminal law, contract, tort, property law and trusts are regarded as the “traditional core subjects”, although there are many further disciplines.
International law
International law can refer to three things: public international law, private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations. Public international law concerns relationships between sovereign nations. The sources for public international law development are custom, practice and treaties between sovereign nations, such as the Geneva Conventions. Public international law can be formed by international organisations, such as the United Nations (which was established after the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II), the International Labour Organisation, the World Trade Organisation, or the International Monetary Fund.
Constitutional and administrative law
Constitutional and administrative law governs the affairs of the state. Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a single codified constitution with a bill of rights. A few, like the United Kingdom, have no such document. A “constitution” is simply those laws which constitute the body politic, from statute, case law and convention.
Criminal law
Criminal law, also known as penal law, pertains to crimes and punishment. It thus regulates the definition of and penalties for offences found to have a sufficiently deleterious social impact but, in itself, makes no moral judgment on an offender nor imposes restrictions on society that physically prevent people from committing a crime in the first place. Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of criminal procedure. The paradigm case of a crime lies in the proof, beyond reasonable doubt, that a person is guilty of two things. First, the accused must commit an act which is deemed by society to be criminal, or actus reus (guilty act). Second, the accused must have the requisite malicious intent to do a criminal act, or mens rea (guilty mind). However, for so called “strict liability” crimes, an actus reus is enough. Criminal systems of the civil law tradition distinguish between intention in the broad sense (dolus directus and dolus eventualis), and negligence. Negligence does not carry criminal responsibility unless a particular crime provides for its punishment. Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims, but the community as well.
Contract law
Contract law concerns enforceable promises, and can be summed up in the Latin phrase pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be kept). In common law jurisdictions, three key elements to the creation of a contract are necessary: offer and acceptance, consideration and the intention to create legal relations.
Tort law
Torts, sometimes called delicts, are civil wrongs. To have acted tortiously, one must have breached a duty to another person, or infringed some pre-existing legal right. A simple example might be accidentally hitting someone with a cricket ball. Under the law of negligence, the most common form of tort, the injured party could potentially claim compensation for their injuries from the party responsible.
Property law
Property law governs ownership and possession. Real property, sometimes called ‘real estate’, refers to ownership of land and things attached to it. Personal property, refers to everything else; movable objects, such as computers, cars, jewelry or intangible rights, such as stocks and shares. A right in rem is a right to a specific piece of property, contrasting to a right in personam which allows compensation for a loss, but not a particular thing back. Land law forms the basis for most kinds of property law, and is the most complex. It concerns mortgages, rental agreements, licences, covenants, easements and the statutory systems for land registration. Regulations on the use of personal property fall under intellectual property, company law, trusts and commercial law.
Equity and trusts
Equity is a body of rules that developed in England separately from the “common law”. The common law was administered by judges and barristers. The Lord Chancellor on the other hand, as the King’s keeper of conscience, could overrule the judge-made law if he thought it equitable to do so. This meant equity came to operate more through principles than rigid rules.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/jurisprudence.aspx
1 Oxford Dictionary of English, 3rd Edition © Oxford University Press 2010.